Maximum Available Desk-to-Eye Distance for Students in Grades One and Two:
Regional Norms and Statistical Comparison to Distance Used for Near Point Screening

      Main Thesis Page       

Appendix A:

State Publications: Vision Screening Guidelines
(Recommended or Mandated)

Appendix B:

Sample Teacher Observations⁽¹⁾

1. Items 1-47 are from the Student Evaluation Manual Revised (pp. 14.10, 14.11)
   by the Tennessee State Department of Education, 1985, Nashville:
   Tennessee State Department of Education, Psychological Services.
   Adapted by permission.
2. Items 48-70 are from the Oregon Vision Screening Administrative Rule
   by the Oregon Department of Education, Salem:
   Oregon Department of Education Student Services and Special Education, 700 Pringle Parkway SE, Salem, OR.
   Adapted by permission.
3. Items 71-94 are from the Preschool and School Vision Screening Manual, 1980, Minneapolis:
   Minnesota Department of Health, P.O. Box 8441, Minneapolis, MN 55440.
   Adapted by permission.
4. Items 95-104 are from the South Carolina Outline of Procedures for Visual Appraisal--School (under revision), 1986.
   Columbus, SC: South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control, 2600 Bull Streett Columbus, SC 29201.
   Adapted by permission.

                    Sample Teacher Observations

  Name ____________________________________    DOB ________________

  School ___________________ Grade ________ Teacher _______________

  To Teachers: Please complete the following checklist.  Your

  observations will be an important part of the functional

  vision assessment.  Place a check ( ) in the space beside

  each behavior you have observed.

              CHARACTERISTICS OF VISION DIFFICULTIES

  A.   Appearance of the Eyes

  _____  1.  Eyes crossed--turning in or out--at any time

  _____  2.  Reddened eyes

  _____  3.  Watering eyes

  _____  4.  Encrusted eyelids

  _____  5.  Frequent sties

  B.   Behavior Indications of Possible Vision Difficulty

        Near

  _____  6.  Frowning or scowling while reading or writing

  _____  7.  Thrusting head forward or tilting to one side

  _____  8.  Covering or closing one eye habitually

  _____  9.  Unusual fatigue after completing a visual task

  _____ 10.  Holds reading materials at an unusual angle

  _____ 11.  Turning head so as to use one eye only

  _____ 12.  Bending over to see material

  _____ 13.  Constantly shif
p;

        Parents and teachers have the advantage of observing a

  child several hours a day and, therefore, are in a position to

  detect vision difficulties.  The following signs and symptoms

  of vision problems should be reported to the person responsible

  for referral and follow-up and considered in the assessment

  of the child's vision status.  Any child manifesting one or

  more of these behaviors consistently should go through the

  screening process.  Refer if the problem persists after

  discussing the problem with the parent and/or teacher, even

  though the child may pass the screening.

  G.    External Abnormalities

  _____ 71.  Any observed problem or change in the whites, lids,

             lashes, pupils, or area around the eye

  H.    Complaints of Visual Distress

  _____ 72.  Sensitivity to light

  _____ 73.  Burning or itching of eyes or lids

  _____ 74.  Blurring or seeing double

  _____ 75.  Words or lines running together

  _____ 76.  Words jumping

  _____ 77.  Headache

  _____ 78.  Nausea or dizziness Behaviors

  I.    Behaviors

  _____ 79.  Rubbing eyes frequently

  _____ 80.  Blinking frequently when reading or watching movies

  _____ 81.  Frowning or scowling when reading

  _____ 82.  Closing or covering an eye when reading or watching movies  

  _____ 99.  Facial distortions, constant rubbing of the eyes,

             tilting of the head when seeing

  _____100.  Frequently changes the distance of reading material

             from near to far

  _____101.  Inattentiveness during reading; cannot read for

             long periods without tiring; reads more poorly as

             time span increases

  _____102.  Tendencies towards reversals of letters and words

             of confusion of letters and numbers with similar

             shapes

  _____103.  Constant loss of place in a sentence or on a page

  _____104.  Poor spacing in writing

Appendix C:

Inquiry Respondents

Appendix D:

Letters

                  [Sample Letter of Inquiry to States]

(DATE)

(INSIDE ADDRESS)

Dear (NAME OF ADMINISTRATOR):

Currently, I am engaged in a doctoral study at Texas Woman's

University (Denton, Texas) which includes utilizing

information from each state.  The study incorporates

references to mandatory or suggested vision screening that

is provided to students in Grades 1 and 2 who are enrolled

in public, private, parochial# or proprietary schools.

I will appreciate receiving information that states the

conditions under which the screening is done, the instrument

used, the distances used for each type of screening, power of

+D lens to screen for hyperopia, and other specific

information which is included in the guidelines for vision

screening in your state.

If this information is more properly obtained from a

different governmental agency, I would appreciate your

referring this request to that agency.

In case there is a charge for receiving a copy of the material,

I will immediately forward payment upon receipt of the statement.

A copy of the results of this survey may be obtained by

 including a request for a copy in your response.  A copy

will then be sent when the study is complete.

Thank you for your help.

Sincerely,

Betty Ward

706 Ridgedale

Richardson, Texas 75080

Phone: 214/783-1413 (recorder)

              [Sample Letter to Superintendents]

(DATE)

(INSIDE ADDRESS)

Dear (SUPERINTENDENT'S NAME):

I am involved in research that relates to the screening

of nearpoint vision.  The study requires public school

children in Grades 1 and 2 as subjects.  In order to have

the children available, the participation of school

districts in ESC Region X. such as yours, is needed.

Enclosed is a resume of the study, and the

complete description of it in order that you,

and the members of the research committee and of the

school board, can determine what is involved.  Although

there is no immediate benefit to the subjects, the

outcome of the study has the potential of benefitting all

children in the future who receive nearpoint vision screening.

Texas' present time constraints within the classroom have

been taken into consideration.  The research design has been

constructed so as to impinge as little as

possible upon instructional time and classroom procedures.

If more information is needed, or wanted, please contact me

at the address/phone below, or check the statement on the form.  

I greatly appreciate my request being thoughtfully considered,

and look forward to working with your school district in

establishing the Maximum Available Desk-to-Eye

Distance norms (MA-DED) for students in Grades I and 2.

Sincerely,

Betty Ward

Texas Woman's University

Vis
 

                    [Sample Letter to Principals]

(DATE)

(INSIDE ADDRESS)

Dear (PRINCIPAL'S NAME):

Thank you for cooperating in my doctoral study being done at

Texas Woman's University, which allows the first and second grade

grade students in your building to be participants in the

research.

Enclosed is a sample letter that the principals have been having

us enclose with the letter and form sent to the parents.  If

you, too, would like for this, or a similar letter, to be

enclosed, please return the signed letter to me, as well as

the school letterhead.  I will then add the proper title etc.,

below your name, insert the contact phone numbery, format it

with your letterhead, and have it printed.

We will also have prepared the number of envelopes for your

enrolled students in grades 1 and 2 (plus a few extra).  The

material to the parents will already be inserted when the

envelopes are delivered to your building.  This will be done

about 2 weeks before the date of measurement.  This allows

for any follow-up that is needed for parents who do not

respond within the designated number of days.

In order to make as little time demand on the school staff as

possible, we like to use a local person--perhaps from the PTA

or similar organization--to help us.  We offer $3.50 per hour.

This can be done either as a fund-raising activity

for the parent organization or by an individual.  The individual

will need to deliver the envelopes to the rooms and
 

                [Sample Follow-Up Letter to Principal]

(DATE)

(INSIDE ADDRESS)

Dear (PRINCIPAL'S NAME):

Please share my thanks with the staff and faculty members

who made it possible for the students in grades 1 and 2 at

Blanton to be included in the Vision Screening Research

Project study.

While I also appreciate the cooperation of the parents who

made it possible, I cannot contact each of them.  But if

the opportunity arises, please pass on my thanks to them, too.   

As an expression of my appreciation, please place the fruit

bowl in the lounge (lounges?) for the staff and faculty --

to include all, although all did not have students who

took part in the study.

My special thanks to you for making Mr. Ward feel so welcome,

and being so helpful while he was there.

Sincerely,

Betty Ward

706 Ridgedale

Richardson, Texas 75080

Vision Screening Research Project

Texas Woman's University (Denton)

            Sample Letter to Teachers and Staff: Measure

Dear Teachers and Staff:

Thank you for cooperating in my doctoral study.  We are trying to

have the procedure done in a way that will interrupt the least

with your daily routine and activities.

The children will take home a letter and 2 copies of the parent

consent form: 1 is to be completed and returned, and the other

is to be kept by the parent.  It is very important that ALL

returned forms be kept.  My field assistant, Ottis Ward, will

retain all of the returned forms to be filed in our records,

as is required by the University.

Your principal will be working with us to determine in which

order the children will be gotten from the classrooms.  A

helper will come for a group of 3.  We can return them in a

group, or let each one return alone as his or her measurement

is completed.  Please let us know your preference.

A helper will have filled out the data sheets from the AGR

cards.  She will also keep track of which children return a

form giving or denying consent for the child to be included

in the study.  Only those whose parents have returned a

"yes" consent will be among those measured.

It will take about 15 minutes to get the children, do the

measuring, and have them start to return to the classroom.

The helper will also determine who did not return any form,

and will have a letter, addressed to the parents of the

child, that the child is to carry home.  This will be brought

to your room the first day th
 

          Sample Letter to Teachers and Staff: Remeasure

Nov. 15, 1987

Dear Teachers:

Those of you who were teachers in grades 1 and 2 last year

in Elementary will remember that the District took part

last spring in the Vision Screening Research Project, which      

involves my doctoral study.  We appreciated so much the

cooperation of the District, the parents, and you, the

teachers.

At this time, we are doing phase 2 of the study.  This

involves the repeat measurements of the children now in

grades 1 and 2 who were among those measured last spring.

Since it does not involve all the children in your classes,

the local helper will bring to your room on Wednesday,

Nov. 18, letters already addressed to the parents of the

children involved in the repeat measurement.  It will also

have the child's name on the envelope.  These will need to

be sent home on that day.

The children are asked to return the signed forms within 3

school days--by Monday, Nov. 23.  The helper will be coming

by to pick them up each day.  It IS necessary that all

forms returned be gotten to us: The research requires that

all the forms be kept on file by us.

Because of the Thanksgiving holiday, the measurements will

be done on Monday and Tuesday, Nov. 30 and Dec. 1.  The

procedure will be as it was last spring.  The helper will

come by for the next 3 students on her list, take them with

her to be measured, then they will return to your room.  The

timing
 

          Sample Suggested Principal's Letter to Parents

Dear Parents:

Our school district is cooperating in a doctoral study

which is being conducted at Texas Woman's University by

Betty Ward.  We feel that the result of the study can be of

benefit to children in the future.  In order for your child     

to participate, we must have on file the completed form

which gives your approval.

The study will require very little time during one school

day, and should not cause much disruption.

If you have any questions about the study or about your

child being a participant in the study, please call me

at ___________________.

 We encourage you to have your child take part in the study.

Sincerely,

Sample Letter to Parent or Guardian

                        (Date)

                        Dear Parent or Guardian:

                        We are asking your permission to have your child, ___________________________,

                        participate in our research study.  The purpose of the study is to collect data to create

                        norms.

                        The created norms will allow the distances used for vision screening to be compared to

the distances children have from their eyes to the desk.  These comparisons will result

in a determination of whether a Pass or Fail on different vision screening tests can be

appropriately generalized to the classroom situation for children in Grades 1 and 2.

Taking the measurement of the distance from the bridge of the nose to the desk top

has no basic risk to your child.  Although there is no direct benefit to your child at the

time of measuring, there is the likelihood that the study results can benefit all children

who will have their vision screened in the future.

Please complete and return the attached form within the next three (3) school days.

                        Sincerely,

                        Betty Ward

                        Doctoral Candidate

                        Texas Woman’s University

                        Denton, Texas

                        If there are any questions, please call (214) 783-1413, or write:

Betty Ward

                                                Vision Screening Research Project

                                                 706 Ridgedale

                                                 Richardson, Texas  75080

          Sample Follow-up Letter to Parent or Guardian

Dear Parents:

Earlier this month, a letter and permission form were sent

home with the students in Grades 1 and 2.  They were asking

you to give permission for your child to be included in a

doctoral study being done at Texas Woman's Univerity by

Betty Ward.

The research assistant will be at your building this week to     

take the measurements.  I know that forms can become

misplaced and not get returned to the school.   So, enclosed

is a copy of the material sent.  Please sign the form

indicating whether or not you want your child included in

the group being measured.  A "yes" reply must be on file in

order for your child to be among those who will help create

a nearpoint vision screening distance which will be

applicable to classroom vision tasks.

The measurement will be of the space from their eyes to the

surface of the desk.  It is of no hazard to the child.

Taking the measurement should take only about 5 minutes.

This should be of very little disruption of the instructional 

time during the school day.

If there are any questions, please call me in the evening

and I will be happy to discuss it with you and to answer

your questions (783-1413, with recorder).

I appreciate so much your signing the form and returning it

to the school tomorrow.

Sincerely,

Betty Ward

Vision Screening Research Project

Texas Woman's University

Appendix E:

Brief Description of the Study

Maximum Available Desk-to-Eye Distance

for Students in Grades 1 and 2

Regional Norms and Statistical Comparison to Distances

Used for Nearpoint Vision Screening

By Betty Ward

The distance used to screen nearpoint vision is based on the accommodation convergence/accommodation ratio (AC/A). The AC/A is the nearest point at which accommodation has been established for clear nearpoint vision. Because no norms have been established for the distance which children have available during the usual nearpoint school tasks which involve both reading and writingr there have been no studies which relate the distance of nearpoint visual screening to the distance of nearpoint school tasks.

Establishing the maximum available desk to eye distance (MA-DED) norms will provide the criteria which are needed, but at present do not exist.

The tradition of using the AC/A distance for nearpoint vision evaluation and screening has developed since the early studies around 1850 first established the distances found for the AC/A ratio. The range for the AC/A extends well past 30 inches out from the eye. From the mean of the AC/A the standard 13-16 inches used for nearpoint vision screening has been established. The "Pass" of the nearpoint vision screening done at 13-16 inches has been generalized to mean that the child who passes the screening can handle the nearpoint visual tasks of the school environment.

According to present day research standards such a generalization would not be accepted. Studies have not been done which demonstrate the similarities of the AC/A distance and the nearpoint distance available to a student during a nearpoint academic task in the school environment. Therefore, no statistical comparisons have been made.

A review of the literature in the fields of eye care, vision screening, investigations of eye movements and other related eye-reading variables during the act of reading, and research in the field of reading has shown that there is a need to have available the norms for the MA-DED. Distance, whether controlled or not, has not been considered a variable in the studies. Often the controlled distance (even up to 47 inches) was greater than that used for nearpoint vision screening. This means that the findings cannot properly be generalized to children. Until the MA- DED norms are available for comparisons, no generalizations can properly be made to children in the lower grades.

The subjects are to be drawn from among the students enrolled in districts within the geographic boundaries of Education Service Center (ESC) Region X.

Desks and chairs will be supplied by the manufacturers of school furniture who have plants in Texas. The styles of desks shall include those with storage facilities under the desk top and above the thighs, and those without storage area above the thighs. Having storage facilities above the thighs shortens the MA-DED. Most schools use this type of desk. The desks and chairs will be of the sizes purchased for use in Grades 1 and 2, as indicated by the furniture manufacturers. Subjects are to be seated at a chair whose seat is no higher than the bend in the back of knee, and at a desk adjusted at its lowest setting. Attached to the desk will be a paper positioned as shown in the manuscript handwriting texts. The paper will be marked with a cross as the visual target.

While seated at the proper chair and desk, and holding a pencil, the subject will be shown a picture of the correct writing posture taken from the handwriting text. The subject will be told, "Sit like this, and put the pencil on the middle of the cross as if you are going to write your name.”  Once positioned, the subject will be shown the picture again, and asked, "Are you sitting like this?" With the subsequent posture held, the technician will place non-stretchable tape at the center of the bridge of the nose of the subject, and at the point on the paper. Retaining his hold on the tape, the technician will read the MA-DED distance in both inches and centimeters. This distance is the MA-DED distance for this subject at this desk.

Statistical comparisons will be made. Findings of no significance will allow the generalizations of the past to stand. Findings of significant differences will indicate the need for future studies, which may include the determination of new distances for nearpoint vision screening. The new distances may be based on the MA-DED findings.

A survey is being made of all the states to determine the vision screening mandated, or the guidelines for vision screening, with the distance for nearpoint screening included. Communication with the education and health departments has revealed that there is an interest in having the MA-DED information available to them. Several of the states at present have an advisory committee studying possible changes in vision screening.

The need for the MA-DED norms is readily apparent and urgent.

Appendix F:

Summary Consent Form Reply: Measure/Remeasure

        Summary Consent Form Reply: Measure/Remeasure

Study Title: Maximum Available Desk-to-Eye Distance for

             Students in Grades One and Two: Regional

             Norms and Statistical Comparison to Distance

             Used for Nearpoint Screening

Investigator: Betty Ward, Texas Woman's University, Denton

Date Sent: ____________ Please return within 3 school days.

The study involves measuring the distance between the bridge

of the child's nose and the pre-positioned target on the

desk.  There is considered to be no risk involved to the

child.  However, should there be an injury to the child,

Texas Woman's University is not responsible for any

compensation for such injury.

I understand that all information that is obtained which can

be identified with the child is to remain confidential by

the name being removed from the records at the completion of

the study.  The result of the study may be published without

identifying the child by name, but by a number only.

Participation in this research study is completely

voluntary.  Refusal to have my child participate will

involve no penalty.  When I give my consent for my child to

participate in the study, I understand that I can withdraw

my consent and discontinue my child's participation at any

time.

I understand that I am to keep the attached copy of this

form as my copy of this document.
 

Appendix G:

Instructions to Local Helpers

Data Sheets and Letters Home

1. Data sheets will be delivered on Monday. 
2. Before the forms are returned, do the following:
• List the students for each teacher's class on a separate data sheet. Write the teacher's name and class designation (i.e. 2C) on each. If a class requires two sheets, write the same information on each sheet, with the word "continued" also on the second sheet. Clip the two sheets together.
• Put the following information (gathered from the AGR or similar office file card): name, sex, birth date, grade, and ethnic group.
  
  In filling out the Ethnic column on the data sheets, use the prefix "L" when the student is enrolled in an ILD (or ESL) class.
• LA = ILD Anglo (includes European)
• LO = ILD Asian or Oriental
• LH = ILD Hispanic
• LB = ILD Black
• LL = ILD other--such as Arabic, etc.
• At the top fill in the date(s) the information was gathered. Sign your name in the "By" space.

3. On Monday deliver the envelopes containing the forms for the students to take home.  (These will arrive bound in groups of 20.)
   You are to prepare groups of these envelopes according to the number of students in each teacher's class (Grades 1 and 2). Place a paper on the front of each group with the teacher's name written on it. Deliver the packet to the teacher. Each child is to take one home.
4. There will be a small reward furnished for each child who returns a form--whether it is blank, completed correctly or incorrectly. Count out the number of awards for each teacher's class and deliver them along with the envelopes.
5. Each of the 3 school days following the forms being taken home, go by each class to collect the returned forms. ALL RETURNED FORMS, letters, etc., must be saved and turned in to Mr. Ward.
   Mark each returned form with the teacher's name and the class designation (i.e. 2C).
   Keep the forms grouped according to the teacher and class.
6. Mark the data sheet in the Parent Permission space Y or N according to the correctly filled out form. LEAVE BLANK the parent permission space when the returned form is marked incorrectly or is blank. ALL RETURNED FORMS, even those that are blank, must be saved and returned to Mr. Ward.
7. On Friday afternoon, prepare a list by student name and teacher of those students who have not returned a form. Give this information to Betty Ward by telephone (214-783-1413,1 recorder). Follow-up packets will be prepared for those students.
8. Follow-up packets are to be delivered to the students' teachers on the first day of measuring.
   Each envelope is to have written on it, "To the Parents of “ (and write the student's name). The student is to take this envelope home the first day of measuring.
9. Each day of measuring, check with the teachers for additional returned forms. Mark the data sheets Y or N in the parent permission space according to number 5 above.

Appendix H:

Figure 2: Demonstration of Correct Posture

Appendix I:

Figure 3: Sample of Target Cross

Appendix J:

Procedure for Taking the MA-DED Measurement

1. The helper brings a group of three (3) subjects to the measurement location, where they are seated in the waiting area.

2. The technician introduces himself and explains the study.  The explanation includes a demonstration of taking the

MA-  DED on himself.  This is done by placing the end of the tape on the bridge of his nose and holding the tape tautly   stretched downward. 

3. One subject is led to the chairs and sits by turn in each while the technician judges the best-fit chair and dictates its size and  fit to the helper.
4. The best-fit chair is brought to each Side desk in turn.  The subject is seated with the chair positioned by the technician so that the edge of the desk is approximately half-way between the subject’s knees and trunk.  The technician judges the best-fit Side desk and  dictates the size and fit to the helper.
5. With the subject seated at the best-fit desk, the model picture is displayed, a short explanation is given, and a demonstration is made again.  The subject is asked which is his or her writing hand and is given the pencil.  The writing hand information is dictated to the helper.  A trial MA-DED is taken on the subject.
6. The subject is told that the real MA-DED will now be taken.  All the steps are repeated.  For the subject who correctly follows the instructions of holding the pencil as if to write, seems to be sitting in a writing posture, and who remains still while the end of the tape is placed on the nose and pulled tautly to the point of the pencil placed on the target, this is the recorded MA-DED.  The measurement is dictated to the helper, using the nearest 1/8 inch.  This procedure is completed for the Side desk before determining the best-fit Across desk.  The procedure is then repeated using the best-fit Across desk. 
7. For the subject who has difficulty holding the pencil as if to write, a blank sheet may be placed over the target, with the subject then asked to write the first letter of his or her name.  The subject is then told to hold the pencil in the same manner when the pencil is placed on the target.  The blank paper is removed, and the MA-DED procedure is repeated.
8. For a subject who has difficulty in either following the instructions or remaining still while the measurement is taken, the following may be repeated a maximum of two (2) more times: display the picture, carry out the demonstration, give the instructions, and take the measurement.  If there is not complete compliance on the first repeat, the MA-DED measurement taken on the second repeat becomes the recorded MA-DED for that subject.
9. The explanation to the subject must include the following: “Hold the pencil like you do when you write”, “Here is a picture of a girl in her very best writing position.  Sit like the girl in the picture”, and “Sit as still as a statue while I measure the distance from the bridge of your nose to where the point of the pencil is touching the paper”.
10. Each child and each group is thanked, and is either sent back to join their classmates or taken back according to the plan determined for the school.

Appendix K:

Figure 3: Form for Collection of MA-DED Data

NOTE: Open the image in a separate window to see it full-size.

Appendix L:

Criteria for Measurement Locations and Resulting Locations

Criteria for Measurement Locations

1. Easily accessible to students in Grades 1 and 2.
2. Out of any line of traffic.
3. Quiet.
4. Adequate lighting.
5. Equipment can be left set up overnight or for the duration of measurements.
6. Allows ease of setting up the equipment.
7. Has available additional chairs and desks for the group of children to wait and receive instruction and for the helper to sit and write.
8. Does not disrupt the routine within the school.

Resulting Locations

1. Hallway
2. Storage room (with old equipment present)
3. Book room
4. Stage in the cafetorium
5. Unused classroom
6. Different classrooms during different periods in a day
7. School clinic

Appendix M:

Criteria for Fit of Chair and Desk

Chair

The best fit chair is an appropriate fit when the chair height allows the child's thighs to rest on the chair with feet flat on the floor when seated well back in the chair. The chair fit is low when the chair height does not allow the thigh to rest on the chair when the child is seated well back in the chair with feet flat on the floor. The chair fit is high when the chair height does not allow the child's feet to be flat on the floor when seated well back in the chair.

Desk

The best fit desk is determined while the subject is seated in the best fit chair at each desk in turn, with the edge of the desk approximately half-way between the subject's knees and the trunk of the body. In an appropriate fit, the under surface of the desk is approximately 2 inches from the surface of the thighs. In a short fit, the distance between the undersurface of the desk and the surface of the thighs is less than approximately 2 inches. In a tall fit the distance between the undersurface of the desk and the surface of the thigh is approximately 3 or more inches.

Appendix N:

Norming of the MA-DED

The MA-DED norms presented in this study were derived from the groups that participated. The sample pool was drawn from students enrolled in Grades 1 and 2 in schools within the geographic boundaries of Educational Service Center Region X in the State of Texas.

Region X serves eight counties: Collin, Dallas, Ellis, Fannin, Grayson, Hunt, Kaufman, and Rockwall. All public school districts and one parochial school within the region were invited to participate in the study. Nine public school districts and one parochial school became participants, with a total of 13 schools participating.

The Texas Education Agency (TEA) places public school districts in categories based on the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA) as defined by the U.S. Bureau of the Census: Urban, Other Central, Suburban (stable in growth or fast-growing student enrollment), Non-Metro (with a town of 1,000+ population), Non-Metro (with a town of equal to or less than 1,OOO population), and Rural (see Table 18, Appendix Q) The TEA does not classify or categorize the school districts according to size of enrollment, but according to the economic base of the taxing district. All seven categories of schools are found in Region X: This is not true for all Education Service Centers in Texas. The categories used in this study are described more fully in the TEA Statistical brief SB81SAR (see Table 19, Appendix Q) October 8, 1961, which was still in use in 1986. This brief provides, among other information, data on the refined Average Daily Attendance (ADA) and the minority percentage of the ADA. The report also provides information on the tax base.

Category 3, Suburban-Fast Growing, is represented by Coppell ISD (Independent School District). Both of its elementary schools took part in the study. Category 4, Suburban-Stable, is represented by the Carrollton-Farmers Branch ISD (C-FBISD), which chose to have three of its elementary schools take part in the study. Category 5, Non-Metro (1,000+), is represented by the Wylie ISD. Category 6, Non-Metro (Town) is represented by the Ferris ISD. Category 7, Rural, is represented by 5 districts which took part in the study.

There was no determination of the comparison of the parochial school, St. Phillip's to other schools whether public, private, or parochial. The TEA does not provide category information for parochial schools. St. Phillip's enrollment for kindergarten through Grade 3 is 100% minorities, with Black as the predominant ethnic group. St. Phillip's School, located in a Dallas inner-city minority neighborhood, draws students from within and outside the immediate vicinity.

The size of the ADA for districts may vary widely, especially in the suburbs. In Category 3. Suburban-Fast Growing, there are 10 school districts, but nearly 50% of that category’s ADA is found within one of them.   In Category 4, Suburban-Stable, there are 11 districts, with nearly 50% of that category’s ADA found within 2 of them.

The TEA does categorize the schools as to urban or suburban districts. Of the nine participating districts and the parochial school, only the parochial school is in a large urban center (Dallas). The largest of the participating districts (C-FBISD) is composed of two industrialized suburbs which have a combined population of over 60,000 people. Two of the districts (Coppell ISD and Wylie ISD) lie in the second outlying ring of Dallas suburbs, and are contiguous with suburbs that touch Dallas. These two districts are in towns that have populations of less than 15,000 people, have smaller industrial/business bases than does Dallas, and are located 20 or more miles from the center of Dallas. A fourth district (Ferris ISD) is in a town which is over 35 miles from the center of Dallas and is on a major interstate highway. The remaining districts which participated in the study are in small towns, may serve one or more municipalities, and are surrounded by rural areas from which their enrollments are drawn.

In this study, 21.98% of the 1,135 subjects measured were minorities, or non-anglos. Of the 13 schools participating in the study 3 had no minorities among the measured subjects, 1 had 100% non-anglo pupils, and 2 had over 50% non-anglo students. The other 6 schools ranged from 2.74% to 20.80% non-anglo measured students.

Subjects were remeasured at two schools. Of the remeasured subjects, 30.46% were non-anglo. For Time 1, there was 15.69% non-anglos, and for Time 2 there was 61.24% non-anglos remeasured.

The minority labels used in this study were those found on the enrollment cards of the Carrollton-Farmers Branch ISD. The percentages of minorities in this study are as follow: Anglo, 78.02%; Hispanic, 10.86%; Black, 7.06%; Asian/Oriental, 3.71%; and Aleut/Native American, 0.35%.

The 1,135 subjects included 510 boys and 625 girls. There were 197 students from first grade, first semester (Grade 1¹); 381 from first grade, second semester (Grade 1²); 194 from second grade, first semester (Grade 2¹), and 363 from second grade, second semester (Grade 2²).

The bias toward the second semester of each grade is an outcome of the election by schools with larger enrollments to schedule the measurements later in the school year. Most schools wanted to avoid scheduling measurements at the start of the year and during the weeks preceding the administration of the statewide achievement tests. Data for the study were gathered in the months of September, October, November, January, February, and March in two different years; the fall of 1987 and in the spring and fall of 1988.

Remeasurement was made of groups at two schools. Time 1, fall to spring, was a 4-month interval (October 1987 to February 1988). Grades 1¹ and 2¹ were remeasured in Time 1. Time 2, spring to fall, was an 8-month interval (March 1987 to November 1987). Grade 1² was remeasured during Time 2.

The age span established for the study had no lower limit set in order to allow for the possibility of young ages if there were a difference of policy among the districts regarding the earliest age at which a student is allowed to enroll in Grade 1. An upper age limit was set at < 10 years old. No subjects younger than 6 years, zero months were found in the study. The resulting age span is from age 6 through age 9.

No formal determinations were made of either family socioeconomic status or occupation of head of household. In the 9 participating public school districts, 6 had only one elementary school, thus ensuring that 100% of the districts's enrollments in Grades 1 and 2 was available to the study. A 7th district had two elementary schools: Both participated in the study, ensuring that inclusion of 100% of that district's first- and second-grade enrollment was available to the study. An eighth district had two elementary schools. One of them participated in the study. The largest district in the study had 3 of its 15 elementary schools take part in the study. In this last district, the administrator responsible for determining the schools to be included stated that he, on his own initiative, selected the 3 schools from that district which, in his opinion, would best represent the high, middle, and low socioeconomic and head of household levels and include regular students, students enrolled in special education, ESL (English as a Second Language), and LEAP (IQ > 140 and other qualifying criteria for Gifted and Talented class enrollment) classes as well as mainstreamed special education and low-achieving students who received only supportive help on demand. The parochial school is located in a low-income, inner-city, minority neighborhood, and draws its students from the surrounding vicinity as well as from other areas.

The Maximum Available Desk-to-Eye Distance (MA-DED)

The MA-DED distances are indicators of the distances within which children in Grades 1 and 2 must work during their nearpoint tasks. The students need to have a reserve of accommodation and convergence while working at these distances. The MA-DED mean distances, based on linear measurement, are for each age group, each grade span, and each age group within a grade span, as well as by sex. The maximum desk-to-eye distance was selected as an indication that a child's working distance while writing is at or within this distance, and cannot be greater than the maximum distance available. The work distance while holding a book and reading at the desk, because the desk limits the placement of the book, is also likely to be at or within this distance.  The only study found which sought to determine the actual working distances of children wile reading or writing at their desks found that the writing distance was shorter than the reading distance (Hurst, 1964).  The decision to include an element of writing in the MA-DED study is based on the fact that one is required to use nearpoint vision during a task which requires both reading and writing, as do many academic tasks. 

Equipment

The equipment used for the study included chairs, desks, a pencil, the prepared target, a nonstretchable measuring tape marked in eighths of inches and in centimeters, an illustration of a child writing at a desk, and forms for recording data. The chairs of the three sizes suggested in the manufacturer's catalogues for use in Grades 1 and 2 were 11 1/2, 13 1/2, and 15 1/2 inches tall (height of seat from the floor). The fit of the chairs was recorded as yes (appropriate), low, or high. Of the measured subjects, fit was recorded as “appropriate” for 96.3%, low for 0.53%. and high for 3.08%. There was no allowance made for the need of a footstool for a dwarf child; the chair fit was high for her. (See Appendix M for a description of fit criteria.)

The two styles of desks were one with across (Across desk) and one with side (Side desk) storage. The Side desk had storage at the side of the work area; whereas, the Across desk had storage underneath the full width of the working surface. The Side desks were described in the catalogue as having lowest adjustments of 19 1/2 to 21 1/2 inches tall (height of working surface from the floor), but in actuality, the lowest possible adjustments were 19 3/4 and 22 inches. The Across desks were described as being 21 1/2 and 23 1/2 inches tall, but the actual lowest adjustments were 23 5/8 and 26 1/4 inches. The fit of the desks was recorded as yes (appropriate), short, or tall. Of the measured subjects, the desk fit was recorded as “appropriate” for 21.0%, short for 0.7%, and tall for 77.9%. (See Appendix M for a description of the fit criteria.)

Procedure

To construct the MA-DED table for the maximum available desk-to-eye distance at Side desk and Across desk, measurement of each subject was made at each style of desk using the following steps:

1. Best-fit chair was determined from among the three sizes suggested for use in Grades 1 and 2 by chair manufacturers.
2. One best-fit desk was determined from two side-storage desks (Side desk), and one best-fit desk was determined from two across-storage desks (Across desk) from among the sizes suggested for use in Grades 1 and 2 by desk manufacturers.
3. Each subject was seated in the best-fit chair at the best-fit desk and instructed to "sit like the child in the illustration", to hold the pencil as if to write, and to place the point of the pencil on the intersection of the target cross.
4. The illustration was shown again to the subject, and a demonstration given of taking the MA-DED and a trial MA-DED measurement were made for each subject.
5. Instructions, demonstration, and trial measurement were repeated up to two additional times for subjects who were unable to follow directions or maintain the illustrated posture and pencil grasp.
6. The MA-DED measurement was taken from the bridge of the student's nose to the placement of the pencil point on the intersecting arms of the target.  The target (a + with arms ¾ inch long) was attached to the desk so the intersection of the arms was in the middle (front to back and side to side) of the desk, with the bottom of the unlined page even with the edge of the desk nearest the subject’s body.  This position is the positioning described and illustrated in the handwriting texts for Grades 1 and 2.
7. The MA-DED was recorded on the measurement in which the subject followed the directions and held the posture and position during the measurement, or on the second repeat of the protocol.

The means and standard deviations of the Side and Across MA-DEDs were computed for each 6-month 1-year, 2-year, 3-year, and 4-year age group. These values are presented in Table 12, Chapter IV. The values for the remeasured Side and Across means and standard deviations for grade or sex are presented in Table 26 and Table 27, Appendix Q. The cells which have an n smaller than the number of variables being studied are excluded from the findings. Smaller age groups in which n < 5 are excluded from the findings for age or age/grade spans. The subjects excluded in these findings are included in the cells for larger age spans with n > 5, thus not being lost to the study.

Cells for grade levels allowed the inclusion of all subjects (see Table 26, Appendix Q). Separate means and standard deviations for boys and girls for each grade group are given in Table 23, Appendix Q. Separate means and standard deviations for each 1-year age-by-grade group are given in Table 24, Appendix Q. Separate means and standard deviations for age-by-sex are given in Table 25, Appendix Q.

Interpretation of the MA-DEDs

The MA-DED scale has only a quantitative interpretation. it contains means and standard deviations for five age spans: 6-month (young = year plus 0 – 5 months, old = year plus 6 – 11 months); 1-year (ages 6, 7, 8, and 9); 2-year (ages 6 + 7, and 8 + 9); 3-year (ages 6 through 8, and 7 through 9); and 4-year (ages 6 through 9). The age spans include subjects of those ages who are in any one of the four grade levels: Grades 1¹, 1², 2¹, and 2² (see Table 12, Chapter IV). The scale also contains means and standard deviations for grade (see Table 22, Appendix Q). Each grade span includes all subjects younger than 10 years old who were enrolled in each grade level or span (1¹, 1², 2^1,, 2^2, 1¹⁺², 2¹⁺², and 1¹⁺² – 2¹⁺²). Additional scales are provided for sex by grade, age by grade, and age by sex (see Table 24, Table 25, and Table 26, Appendix Q).

Statistical Properties of the Scale

Standard Error Measurement

The standard error of measurement (se_m) is a function of the reliability coefficient and the variability of scores for a particular age group. It provides an indication of the confidence in making judgments about the true maximum available desk-to-eye distance for children of ages or in grades shown on the scale. The se_m or standard deviation (SD) indicates the limits of a band of error around a MA-DED measurement. Table 12, Chapter IV, and Table 22, Table 23, Table 24, and Table 25, Appendix Q, present the standard deviations of the MA-DED measurements. The standard deviation of +/-1.745 inches for the Side MA-DED mean at age Y6 indicates that the chances are about 95 in 100 that this mean is within +/-1.745 inches of the true measurement. The true measurement is the average of measurements that would be obtained for a child if the child were measured many times and if other effects could be ruled out. The smaller the standard deviation, the more reliable the measurement.

The standard deviation of the MA-DED varies across the age groups, across grade levels and spans, and across styles of desks. The range of measured means also varies across age groups, grade levels and spans, and sex for both styles of desks (see Table 12, Chapter IV, and Table 22, Table 23, Table 24, and Table 25, Appendix Q).

Stability

It is difficult to assess the reliability of the MA-DED across time because of the possible effect of physical growth. Therefore, remeasurement was made of two groups from fall to spring (Time 1), a period of 4 months, and spring to fall (Time 2), a period of 8 months, for a total of 151 children (105 anglo; 46 non-anglo) (see Table 26, and Table 27, Appendix Q). Tests were made for significant differences between the means for each Time group. The absolute differences of means (in inches) for the Side MA-DED were 0.0156 (Grade 1¹) and 0.0486 (Grade 2¹) for Time 1 and 0.4618 (Grade 1²) for Time 2. The absolute differences of means for the Across MA-DED was 0.7474 (Grade 1¹) and 0.2893 (Grade 2¹) for Time l and 0.0892 (Grade 1²) for Time 2. The variation in the lengths of Time I and Time 2 was brought about by the summer vacation and the end of the school year intervening in Time 2, and the measurement schedule. The schedules were arranged by the principals to be compatible with other activities at each facility.

Differences Between the Side and Across MA-DEDs

The size of the difference between the Side and Across MA-DED means which is required for statistical significance is small. An examination of the absolute difference found to be significant was approximately 1/2 inch or less in length. The dioptric equivalent of this absolute difference varies according to the distance of the target from the eyes. The linear range equivalent of the one-diopter difference between two and three diopters for the emmetrope (individual with optimal vision) is 7 inches (20 to 13 inches) but is only 1/2 inch (5 to 4 1/2 inches) for the one-diopter difference between eight and nine diopters. The dioptric accommodation range required for the 2-inch reading range difference in Borish's (1970) 16- to 14-inch reading range is +0.34 D. but the dioptric accommodation reading range required for the 2-inch difference between 6 and 4 inches is 3.34 D (Hurst, 1964).

Intercorrelation with Other Measurements

There have been no other measurements made of the maximum available desk-to-eye distance for children in Grades 1 and 2. Hurst (1964) determined the working distances of children in Grades K-8 when writing and when reading a book at their desks. It is not appropriate to assume the maximum available distance desk-to-eye distance is always a student’s working distance, but the appropriate mean MA-DED is probably be the best approximation available.

General Measuring Considerations

The MA-DED was developed for use with children aged 6 through 9 years, or in Grades 1 and 2. The scale might also be applied, however, to children in grades other than Grades 1 and 2 or of ages older than 6 through 9 when both the height and weight of the individual falls within the height and weight norms of children in Grades 1 and 2 or the height and weight norms of children aged 6 through 9. This could be considered because the child would likely be of a size or physique similar to that of the target population. The study cited a child's size or physique as affecting the size of best-fit chair and desk, which in turn was considered to affect the maximum available desk-to-eye distance.

Standard Procedure

When a MA-DED is to be determined for children in Grades 1 or 2 or of an age within the 6 to 9 year span, the conditions should be identical in regard to the placement of the target, type of target, and the presentation of an illustration depicting writing posture appropriate for the style of writing being used in the classroom. The intention of the MA-DED scale is to provide a minimum standard against which near viewing distances may be compared when determining the generalizability of a finding made by a researcher, or may be used when designing investigations that employ reading or writing at a desk, screening vision, examining vision, or determining possible optical aids to be used.  In the case of examining vision and determination of optical aid, however, it is more appropriate to determine the individual's actual working distance at his or her school desk/work surface and employ that distance in evaluating the need for optical aid for near distance work.

Intended Use of the MA-DED

The MA-DED scale provides a standard that can be used to determine whether the near viewing distances used in the past investigations and norms of visual elements are appropriate for Grades 1 and 2 and ages 6 through 9 years. If the difference between the viewing distance used and the MA-DED for a given age or grade is significant, there is a need to establish norms of the visual element using a distance no greater than the maximum available desk-to-eye distance for the given age or grade. The availability of the MA-DED scale also provides one standard for near viewing distance that can be utilized in designing reading experiments. A MA-DED might be the only viewing distance used, or one of several reading distances used in replication of earlier studies which incorporated greater reading distances.  The intention would be to determine if the same findings will result at viewing distance equal to, shorter than, or longer than the appropriate MA-DED.

Validity of the MA-DED

The internal validity of the study was viewed in terms of an individual’s desk-to-eye distance being different for Side and Across MA-DEDs and not in terms of the significance between the means. In the raw data, 21 of the 1,135 subjects had no difference between the Side and Across MA-DEDs, and 110 subjects had an Across MA-DED which was longer than the individual's Side MA-DED. This latter finding was unexpected, in that the Side desk with its absence of the storage area between the subject’s thigh and the desk top allows the Side desk to be shorter than the Across desk when each has the same clearance above the thighs. Theoretically, this would allow the MA-DED to be greater for the Side desk.

The time lapses for Time 1 and Time 2 were not the same, although each group had the remeasurement made the semester immediately following the semester of measure. Time 1 was fall to spring, a period of 4 months. Time 2 was spring to fall, a period of 8 months across the summer vacation and the end of the school year.

External validity could not be controlled. It is felt, however, that the external validity is good due to the procedure followed:

1. All public school districts within the geographic boundaries of Education Service Center Region X were invited to become participants.
2. All elementary schools within a participating district were eligible to become participants.
3. Parents of all students enrolled in Grades 1 and 2 in the participating schools were asked to grant permission for their children to become participants.
4. A parochial school in an inner-city neighborhood was included in the study.
5. No education placement excluded a student as a subject.
6. No lower age limit was set, and the upper age limit (< 10 years) was set high enough to included retained students.
7. There was representation of each of the given ethnic groups.

Therefore, it is felt that each student enrolled in the public schools within the geographic boundaries of Region X had equal opportunity to become a subject in the study. The inclusion of all students given permission to participate indicates that the finds may be generalized to the larger target population of students who are enrolled in Grades 1 and 2, and are of the ages of the subjects, that is, 6 through 9 years of age.

Appendix O:

Legend of Acronyms

Appendix P:

Reply and Response Forms

[Principal's Reply Form]:

Maximum Available Desk to Eye Distance (MA-DED) Research:

School _______________________  Principal __________________

School District ________________ School Phone ______________

Scheduled measurement date _________________________________

Number of 1st graders ______ No. of Classrooms (1st) ______

Number of 2nd graders ______ No. of Classrooms (2nd) ______

Name of persons to contact concerning employment as helper:

____________________________________  Phone ________________

____________________________________  Phone ________________

Location for the 4 desks and 3 chairs to be used for the

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

We would like to borrow 4-5 chairs or desks to use for the

helper, the Field Assistant, and the children to sit in

while they are waiting.

Address of the building, and directions for getting there:

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Thank you for your help and cooperation.

Betty Ward                         School:  323-6600 or 6601

Doctoral Candidate                          call can be

Texas Woman's University           &
 

[Principal's Response Form]:

Date______________________

The ____________________________ School District

(please check the ones which apply)

_____"will" be a participant in the MA-DED study.

_____wants more information on the MA-DED study.

      Please contact by _____ mail     _____ phone

     Name___________________________________________________

     Address________________________________________________

       ________________________________________________

     Phone  _____-___________________

_____contact the following persons to schedule the MA-DED

     study in the buildings:  Grades 1 and 2

     Name______________________________Title________________

     School_________________________________________________

Address________________________________________________

       ________________________________________________

Phone  _____-____________________

     Name______________________________Title________________

     School_________________________________________________

Address________________________________________________

       ________________________________________________

Phone  _____-____________________

     Name______________________________Title________________

    School_________________________________________________

Address________________________________________________

       _________________________________
 

Appendix Q:

Tables

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